Westernization

Westernization or Westernisation ,meaning the Western world is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western culture in areas such as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet, religion, philosophy, and values. Westernization has been a pervasive and accelerating influence across the world in the last few centuries, with some thinkers assuming westernization to be the equivalent of modernization, a way of thought that is often debated. The overall process of westernization is often two-sided in that Western influences and interests themselves are joined with parts of the affected society, at minimum, to change towards a more Westernized society, in the hope of attaining Western life or some aspects of it. To assume, however, Western societies are not affected or changed by this process and interaction with non-Western groups is misleading.

The phenomenon of westernization does not follow any one specific pattern across societies as the degree of adaption and fusion with Western customs will occur at varying magnitudes within different communities. Specifically, the extent to which domination, destruction, resistance, survival, adaptation or modification affect a native culture may differ following inter-ethnic contact. In a situation where a native culture experiences destruction as a result of a more powerful outside force, a "shock phase" can often result from the encounter. Such a phase is especially characteristic during expansionist or colonialist eras. During a shock phase, repression using military force may lead to a cultural collapse or ethnocide, a culture’s physical extinction. According to Conrad Phillip Kottak, the Westerners "will attempt to remake the native culture within their own image, ignoring the fact that the models of culture that they have created are inappropriate for settings outside of Western civilisation," just one representation of the possibly harmful effects of Westernization.

Modernization

Modernization or modernisation refers to a model of an evolutionary transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. The teleology of modernization is described in social evolutionism theories, existing as a template that has been generally followed by societies that have achieved modernity. While it may theoretically be possible for some societies to make the transition in entirely different ways, there have been no counterexamples provided by reliable sources.

According to theories of modernization, each society can develop from traditionalism to modernity, and that those that make this transition follow similar paths. More modern states are wealthier and more powerful, and their citizens freer, with a higher standard of living. According to Peter Wagner, modernization can be seen as processes, and as offensives. The former view is commonly projected by politicians and the media, and suggests that it is developments, such as new data technology or need to update traditional methods, which make modernization necessary or preferable. This view makes critique of modernization difficult, since it implies these developments control the limits of human interaction, and not vice versa. It also states that it is purely up to human being to control the speed and severity of modernisation.

The view of modernization as offensives argues that both the developments and the altered opportunities made available by these developments are shaped and controlled by human agents. The view of modernization as offensives therefore sees it as a product of human planning and action, an active process capable of being both changed and criticized

Universalization and Parochialization

Universalization and Parochialization -Mckim Marriott

The concept of universalization and parochialization were given by Mckim Marriott in his "Little Communities in an indigenous Civilization ".He examined the socio-religious organization in an Indian village Kishangarhi in Uttar Pradesh. According to Marriott, an indigenous civilization is one whose Great Tradition originates by universalization or a carrying forward of materials which are already present in the Little Tradition which it encompasses.Such an indigenous Great Tradition has authority in so far it constitutes a more articulate and refined restatement or systematization of what is already there. He explains the concept by giving examples from the festivals of Little Tradition in Kishangarhi village.He refers to the Festival of Lights in which the local goddess of prosperity and wealth is propitiated.Marriott comments that Saurti of this Little Tradition could have been universalized into the goddess Lakshmi of the Great Tradition who stands for prosperity and wealth also.

The reverse of universalization is parochialization .It is a process of localization of limitation upon the scope of intelligibility of deprivation of literary form,of reduction to less systematic and less reflective dimensions.The process of parochialization constitutes the characteristic creative work of little communities within India's indigenous civilization.He explains the process through examples from Kishangarhi ,the festival of Navarathri in which Nine Durgas are worshiped for nine successive days.In Kishangarhi a female deity Naurtha made of  mud is worshiped for nine deities.Marriott points out that Durga has been parochialized into Naurtha the name also being parochialized deriving from nava ratra or nine nights.

Marriott concludes that seen through its festivals and deities the religion of the village of Kishangarhi may have originated as resulting from continuous process of communication between a little ,local tradition and great traditions .Since both Great and Little traditions exist within the religion of little communities  and these communities study of the religion  of a little community can contribute to the understanding of processes of universalization and parochialization.

Sanskritization

All the changes, which have occurred in the castes, are intercaste changes and these have no way affected the fundamentals of caste system. For this process of change M.N. Srinivas a pioneer of Indian sociology has used the concept of Sanskritization.  Sanskritization is not a new concept in sociological literature but M.N. Srinivas has used this concept in a peculiar way. In his words, Sanskritization means not only the adaptation of new customs and habits but also exposure of new ideas and valued which have found frequent expression in the vast body of Sanskrit literature, social as well as Secular. These ideas reach the common people through Sanskrit myth and stories. Thus Sanskritization means the adaptation of the values of a cultured society.In explaining the meaning of Sanskritisation, M.N. Srinivas pointed out that Sanskritization was not always due to Brahmans; generally Sanskritisation qualifies as caste for a higher status. In the dynastic system, Sanskritisation emphasised the status of dynasty.According to Srinivas, Sanskritization spread during the British Rule with the development of means of communication, the impact of Sanskritisation was felt in the remote corners of the century.  With the spread of education and literacy it percolated to the lowest castes.  The western terminology radio press rail etc.  generally facilitated the process of Sanskritisation.The mobility associated with Sanskritisation results only in positional changes in the system and does not lead to any structural change. In other words, the spectrum itself doesn’t change.  He also notes how the tribal groups such as Bhils of western India, the Gonds and Oraon of central India claim to be a caste through the process of Sanskritisation and thus claim a place in the caste hierarchy.  It is well known that there is no conversion process in the traditional Hindu system.While Srinivas took Sanskritisation to mean some kind of Brahminisation, other investigators showed that Sanskritisation could be based on Kshatriya or Vaisya or Sudra’ morals. As Srinivas himself points out the varna hierarchy is clear and immutable’. It is evident; therefore, that Sanskritisation reinforces and consolidates the ‘immutable varna hierarchy’ rather than dislodges it or modify it.Thus, Sanskritisation is not a process by which structural change in the Hindu society can become possible. It is certainly not a means by which any social change in India can be brought about.

children and youth, aged, physically challenged, religious minorities

women

STATUS OF WOMEN

“Yatra Nari Astu Pujyante, Ramante Tatra Devataa” The Gods reside in places where woman is worshiped --- Manu Smriti

“It is impossible to think about the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is impossible for a bird to fly on only one wing.” – Swami Vivekananda

Women are not born, but made. What better than India to exemplify this statement by Simone de Beauvoir. With the whole world celebrating International Women’s Day with great pomp and show, it would be only apt to analyze the position and space Indian women occupy today, and comparing it to the times 60 years ago when the country had just gained independence. With the women participating in nationalist movements to being pushed into the domestic household space, to their resurgence as the super-women today, women in our country have seen it all.

When our country got its independence, the participation of women nationalists was widely acknowledged. When the Indian Constitution was formulated, it granted equal rights to women, considering them legal citizens of the country and as an equal to men in terms of freedom and opportunity. The sex ratio of women at this time was slightly better than what it is today, standing at 945 females per 1000 males. Yet the conditions of women screamed a different reality.

A very few were allowed a public space, which she was expected to manage on her own along with her domestic role as a homemaker. In spite of the Sharda Act which was passed in the 1950s to raise the marital age limit for girls, child marriage particularly in North India was quite prevalent though the average age at marriage for females was increased to 18. Sprawling inequalities persisted in their access to education, health care, physical and financial resources and opportunities in political, social and cultural spheres. It was almost unthinkable for women to have a choice or a say in matters of marriage, career or life. Rather she had no voice at all. The practice of dowry was as common as ever.

Women of India slowly started recognizing her true potential. She has started questioning the rules laid down for her by the society. As a result, she has started breaking barriers and earned a respectable position in the world. Today Indian women have excelled in each and every field from social work to visiting space station. There is no arena, which remains unconquered by Indian women. Whether it is politics, sports, entertainment, literature, technology everywhere, its women power all along. The Modern Indian woman, does not let social constraints to keep her behind, but prioritizes her education or her career before anything else. From a time when there no woman writer in India who was taken seriously, today names like Arundhati Roy, Anita Desai, Kiran Desai, Shobhaa De, Jhumpa Lahiri can put any other writer to shame. In the field of cinema, women like Rekha, Smita Patil, Shabana Aazmi and Vidya Balan and Konkona Sen are such names who don’t play feminized roles, but have asserted themselves over this male-dominated realm. In the field of Politics, from Indira Gandhi to Shiela Dixit, Uma Bharti, Jayalalitha, Vasundhra Raje and Mamata Banerjee today, women are making their presence felt.

Kinship : definitions, forms, kinship system in north n south India-imp features

Meaning

Kinship provides the framework of social relationship. Kinship means relationship of the individual with the other members due to either a bond of marriage or through blood. Kinship bonds are very strong. Kinship begins with nuclear family. The kins found in this group are husband, wife, son, daughter, brother, sister. Kinship is that part of culture which deals with notions of, or ideas about 'relatedness' or relationship through birth and through marriage. A kinship system is not a group like family nor it is a set of institutionalised rules like marriage.

According to Murdock, "It is a structured system of relationship in which individuals are bound to one another by complex interlocking and ramifying ties". Radcliffe-Brown says that Kinship system is a part of social structure and insists upon the study of kinship as a field of rights and obligations.

Types of kinship systems 

Primary kins: Every individual who belong to a nuclear family finds his primary kins within the family. There are 8 primary kins- husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, father-daughter, mother-daughter, younger brother-elder brother, younger sister-elder sister and brother-sister.

Secondary kins: Outside the nuclear family the individual can have 33 types of secondary relatives. For example mother's brother, brother's wife, sister's husband, father's brother.

Tertiary kins: Tertiary kins refer to the secondary kins of our primary kins. For example wife's brother's son, sister's husband's brother and so on. There are 151 types of tertiary kins.

Kinship in North and South India

North Indian kinship systems 
This kinship system is present in Hindi speaking belt and also in areas where Aryan culture influence is substantive. It includes West Bengal, Orissa and Bihar. In case of North India kinship system, the terminology used for father's brother is not used for mother's brother ,therefore Patrikins are distinguished from Matrikins. Within Patrilineal system father's brother are distinguished from father's sister therefore differential terminologies are used. Father's brothers are also distinguished in terms of age and so deferential respect is attribute to them. 

In North India kinship systems, the rules of marriage is highly exhaustive because a large body of people are excluded from alliance relationship. One is not supposed to receive a woman from a group to which women is offered within 5 to 7 generations. In addition to that one cannot receive women from his mother’s group or mother's mother group, father’s mother group and from within his own village. Hence exogamy is quite exhaustive and marriage involves not intra-family ties but inter-village ties. Residential system is very Virilocal (bride lives with husband's father’s group) type and marriage involves a series of presentational obligations. 

In North Indian kinship father – son relationship precedes over husband – wife relationship.
Elaborating on this Veena Das in an analysis of Punjabi kinship system indicates that natural sexual relationship between husband and wife are subdued to social established relationship between father and son 
thereby glorifying the values of patriarchy (system of kinship where authority rests with male). 

South Indian kinship systems 
This type of relationship system is largely present in all southern states and some of its influence is also largely noticed in pockets of Maharashtra and Orissa. In southern India kinship systems, no distinction is made between patrilineal or matrilineal ,therefore father's brother is equated with mother's sister's husband and both their children being parallel cousins so no marriage is allowed between them. To its contrast father's sister's group is equated with mother's brother's group, hence mother's brother is equivalent to father's sister's husband.

Thus in South India specific patrilineal kins are equated with specific matrilineal Kins. In South India father is equated with elder brother ,mother is equated with elder sister , daughter is equated with younger sister and son is equated with younger brother and subsequently/correspondingly terminologies are adjusted. These terminologies speaks about love for younger, respect for elders cutting across generational principles. 

In case of South India cross cousins marriage take place and so exogamy is not exhaustive like in North India. The relationship between husband and wife is not subdued to father – son relationship as in case of North India. Hostility of relationship between the in laws driven by suspicion is also weak in South India.